Political Structures Affect Incentives to Polarize.Reducing Affective Polarization May Not Impact Violent or Antidemocratic Attitudes.Third Generation Understanding: Cracks in the Foundations.Interventions to Reduce Affective Polarization.What Is Causing Affective Polarization?.Polarization Is Emotional Dislike Based on Identity That Affects Regular People.Second Generation Understanding: Mass Affective Polarization.Interventions to Reduce Policy-Based Polarization Among Political Elites.Polarization Is Policy Difference, and Congress Is the Problem.First Generation Understanding: Elite Ideological Polarization.What This Understanding Means for Interventions.Five Facts About Polarization in the United States.A literature review follows, organized chronologically to explain the scholarly shift from thinking of polarization as an ideological, policy-based phenomenon to an issue of emotion, as well as the emerging understanding of polarization as both a social phenomenon and a political strategy. It opens with five facts about polarization in the United States today and what those imply for possible interventions. This paper is intended to answer these questions. Rachel Kleinfeld is a senior fellow in Carnegie’s Democracy, Conflict, and Governance Program, where she focuses on issues of rule of law, security, and governance in democracies experiencing polarization, violence, and other governance problems.
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